At the heart of much academic writing is an argument. An academic argument can vary in form according to the subject area; however, there are shared common elements.You need to be able to deconstruct and understand an academic argument when reading and create an argument in your own writing.
Instruction
Examine Riddle's model below for understanding academic argument and its core elements. Open the help section to see an example. Read the extracts that follow and identify the elements of a larger argument which each one contains. Highlight the part of the text which corresponds to either the claim, evidence or justification and select the appropriate button to change the colour. Then open the feedback to check your answers.
A claim refers to the writer's opinion or position regarding the matter being written about. This is not factual but debatable and so needs to be argued.
Data relates to the evidence that is used by the writer to support their claim. This may be factual or contain reference to specific examples.
Justification refers to the writer's interpretation of the facts or circumstances. It links the data with the claim in the argument.
This example extract is taken from a larger text in the subject area of Archaeology. It contains two of the elements of an academic argument: evidence linked to a claim. In this case, the claim comes first and is highlighted in blue while the evidence is highlighted in red and follows. The justification may be elsewhere in the main text from which the extract is taken. Note that the order of the elements may vary and not all text will be part of the claim, evidence or justification.
The huge cost of large-scale excavations at Classical sites means that they are much rarer today than they used to be. However, the inter-disciplinary and ethical challenges inherent to these, and the range of techniques to which they are suited, means that they are ideal for training the next generation of Classical archaeologists in field and analytical techniques, as well as giving them familiarity with the material culture of the Classical world.An AHRC project studentship in Roman ceramics, for example, has addressed one of our research questions and generated deep knowledge of one class of material, while excavation data have provided dissertation topics for MSc Computing students.
Simon Keay, Portus MOOC, University of Southampton
The claim is essentially that the richness and range of activity conducted on large scale archaeological sites (such as Portus) makes them ideal situations for the preparation and training of future archaeologists.
This is supported with evidence - here in the form of an example - of how aspects of the Portus site excavation supported a studentship project and a number of Masters degree programme dissertations, addressing a research question and leading to important knowledge development in the area.
The way in which an argument and its core elements are expressed can be complex. There may be more than one strand to some of the elements and development of points. There is no fixed order for the elements and the reader may need to study an argument closely to recognise the differents parts and analyse how it is constructed.
The extracts below are also drawn from Archaeology. Not all of the the elements of the argument are present in these extracts. Examine them carefully to identify which elements they contain and how they are linked together into part of an argument.
1. Extract from University of Southampton Portus MOOC:
Here is the text with the claim highlighted in blue, the evidence highlighted in red and the justification highlighted in green:
Another example of the benefits of complementary datasets came in the discovery of the Portus to Ostia canal.This canal on the Isola Sacra was not detected in the topography or satellite imagery, but was clearly visible in Aereo Militare air photographs from the 1950s, due to the vegetation and conditions on the ground when the photographs were taken. Post-war air photos by private commercial organisations also exist.These photos provide high resolution coverage of the Tiber Delta at high and low altitude, showing land use, archaeological features and areas of seasonal flooding related to the lagoons of the Tiber Delta. We can then digitise different anomalies to create a map of archaeological features across the entire delta area.
Kris Strutt, Portus MOOC, University of Southampton
This text extract contains all three elements of an argument. The claim is that complementary sets of data or information can also yield benefits to archaeological projects. The evidence comes from the example of the Portus project in which some 1950's Italian military air photography established the location of the Portus to Ostia canal, in addition to air photos from private commercial organisations. The justification linking claim and evidence summarises the coverage that such complementary data provide and highlights the fact that such different sources of data information can be digitised to help construct a complete map of archaeological features across an area under investigation.
2. Extract from University of Southampton Portus MOOC:
Here is the text with the claim highlighted in blue and the evidence highlighted in red:
From the types of metal object and their distribution within Building 5 at Portus,it does appear that its original use was for ship building or repairas trenches in this area contain nearly all the evidence for port activities.
Graeme Earl, Portus MOOC, University of Southampton
This text extract has two of the elements of an argument. The claim is that metallic remains in one area of the Portus excavation site may well have been related to ship building and repair. The supporting evidence is in two parts: the type and distribution of the metal finds across the site suggests this; many of the excavation trenches in this area reflect evidence of port activitiy.
3. Extract from University of Southampton Portus MOOC:
Here is the text with the claim highlighted in blue and the evidence highlighted in red:
Specifically two techniques were used to identify and quantify charred plant remains, small bone (incl. fish/birds), edible molluscs such as a profusion of cockles and also organic remains, ecofactual molluscs and microfossils including seeds and insects. This provides a fascinating level of detail.For example, the organic plant remains could make it clear whether deeply buried parts of the site had always been wet or whether there had been an early period prior to them becoming waterlogged.
Graeme Earl, Portus MOOC, University of Southampton
This text extract has two elements of an argument. The claim relates to the fascinating level of detail that can be obtained through technical analysis of charred plant remains, small bone (incl. fish/birds), edible molluscs such as cockles and also organic remains, ecofactual molluscs and microfossils including seeds and insects. The evidence for this claim is that such material makes it clear whether deeply buried parts of the Portus site had always been wet or whether there had been an early period prior to them becoming waterlogged.
Would you like to review the main points?
Riddle's model does not imply that there is only one way of arguing or one fixed order in which arguments should be made. In reality, academic arguments can take different forms. However, a useful 'rule of thumb' is that effective arguments have certain common elements: a claim and convincing evidence or support, as well as a justification.
Here are six other features often found in academic arguments: A case for a particular position - Arguing for a particular position does not mean taking a one-sided view. It is more effective when it also shows an understanding of the strengths and weaknesses of other positions. A clear central idea - This may take the form of a problem or question which the writer identifies as the basis for organising the writing. A logic to the way ideas are expressed and developed - It is the writer's responsibility to make his/her argument clear to the reader. This includes showing how points are connected. A sense of direction - The writer should show where he or she is going with the argument. The reader should be able to see a step by step construction of the argument. Clear linking of ideas - Each point in the argument builds on previous points and leads clearly to other points. Evidence used to support the central idea - This can take the form of observations, statistics, data or support from other arguments.
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